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Managing Stable Vices - Are they vices or a product of their environment?

Stable Vices: Are they vices or a product of their environment? We often see the word “vice” used in the equestrian world to describe an undesirable behavior completed by a horse; these are often repetitive behaviors completed either at certain times of the day, prior to or following a particular event or activity which causes the horse stress for whatever reason. When we look to the dictionary definition of a vice, the words “immoral,” “corrupt” and “wicked” are synonymous; but these are all words used to describe premeditated or deliberate acts of wrongdoing. When we consider that these are horses we are talking about, they simply do not have the cognitive ability to do this. As humans, we tend to over complicate and anthropomorphize animal behavior, likening it to our own and thus presuming horses complete these behaviors for far more complex reasons. Recently the term vice has been replaced with a more correct term: “stereotypical behaviors” or “stereotypies,” which encompasses any behavior deemed to deviate from normal behavior and has resulted from the horse coping with a challenge or stress. On the surface, the behaviors appear apparently functionless, but when understood as a coping mechanism rather than a premeditated misdeed, we can begin to understand what that behavior serves the horse, if only temporarily. What is stress? Stress is the body’s response to a potentially threatening situation and is experienced by humans and animals alike and even serves as a function to keep the animal alive. Presence of a short-term stressor such as a predator serves to kick-start the fight or flight response, which is part of the acute stress response. Stress can be divided into two subtypes: acute and chronic, which are dealt with by the body very differently. They also result in several different physiological adaptations that are notable when discussing stereotypical behavior. Acute stress refers to a short event or episode that causes a temporary increase in heart rate, respiratory rate, salivary cortisol levels, increased blood pressure and muscle tension. In relatively healthy animals, once the stressful event has passed, these body parameters will return to a base-line normal. These short episodes are not always necessarily bad and can help a horse learn and adapt to their environment. As horse handlers, we also know we can help a horse habituate to a common stressor by regularly introducing them to it and giving them a positive experience. Over time, their stress response will become less severe, and thus they will learn to cope with it reoccurring. Chronic stress refers to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period of time, which an individual perceives to have little to no control of—the latter part being key in horses. Stereotypical behaviors will often occur during times where horses cannot control their environment. Stabled horses are most likely to display stereotypical behaviors because they are often in a situation when they cannot immediately change their environment or remove themselves from a particular stressor. Symptoms of chronic stress include weight loss, decreased appetite, negative demeanor or aggressive tendencies. Horses suffering from chronic stress sometimes go unnoticed because the signs are more subtle; there is no pounding heart rate, sweating, increased breathing rate or more obvious cues that handlers may associate with a typically stressed horse. The other problem is that stereotypical behaviors can go ignored or become “just something they do.”There is a common link between horses who display stereotypical behaviors and those diagnosed with gastric ulcers as both are closely related to chronic stress. There is debate over cause and effect, whether the horse performs these behaviors in an attempt to ease the discomfort of gastric ulcers or if those performing stereotypies are chronically stressed and at higher risk of developing gastric ulcers. Typical stereotypical behaviorsThere are several common stereotypical behaviors seen in domesticated horses, and they can be divided into two simple categories: oral and locomotor. Oral stereotypies include crib biting, wind sucking and wood chewing; there is varied opinion suggesting these behaviors may provide temporary alleviation of stomach discomfort, but this is a question for cause and effect. Locomotor stereotypies include weaving, box/fence walking and door kicking. These behaviors expend a lot of energy, especially if the horse devotes a significant amount of time to this behavior and as a result, the horse can be prone to losing or maintaining condition. There is research to suggest that if performed for long enough, stereotypical behaviors become a habit; and act as a reward to the horse, the release of endorphins occurs which reinforces repetition. Further to this, it can also be preempted by a horse who regularly experiences the same stressor at the same time of the day, each day and will therefore begin the behavior before the stressful event occurs. Individual horses will vary in the degree of persistence and vigor to which the behavior is performed; and this largely depends on how much of the horse’s time is devoted to the behavior and how often the trigger event occurs in the horse’s routine. Some horses with stereotypies will appear to have a generally nervous demeanor, and others are relatively even-tempered and well-adjusted animals who otherwise do not appear to be suffering adversely from their environment. Some horse owners will notice a trigger or a marker that often sets off the behavior, in this case the stereotypy is easier to manage (e.g., ensuring that the horse is turned out first or fed first to prevent weaving or door kicking). When there appears to be no causative link, solving the stereotypy may become quite difficult especially if the horse has routinely done it for some time, as this becomes an ingrained habit. A little about anatomyThe left hemisphere controls routine, internally directed or self-motivated behaviors in relatively low stress and familiar environments; examples would include foraging and grooming other horses. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is responsible for environmental-motivated behaviors, emotional arousal and unexpected or threatening stimuli; this refers to natural behaviors that have been redirected to other objects or pastimes when the previously innate option is not available. These may include crib biting, bed foraging and wind sucking. The horse’s brain and associated physiology is quite different from the human; in part this can be attributed to the fact that horses are prey animals, and their innate fight or flight response is regularly triggered. The amygdala and hypothalamus work closely together to detect trauma and process memories. If a stimulus is considered threatening enough, it can be etched into a horse’s memory. Therefore, it can be appreciated how quickly a horse can memorize a previously distressing event. Horses lose the ability to discriminate between past and present experiences and also lack the ability to rationalize or interpret environmental contexts correctly. This means that although we know the horse next door is only going to the field 300 feet away, the horse who has started weaving has not rationalized or understood this. Horses that are prone to or that regularly complete stereotypical behaviors have “up-regulated” nervous systems, meaning that they are closer to the threshold of panic and may in some cases constantly remain in an over-aroused state. It will take very little to send them over this threshold and begin their stereotypical or coping behavior. Why don’t all horses do it? A common misconception is that horses copy each other completing different stereotypical behaviors, but in fact there is no scientific research to support this; and the environment the horses are in is usually the common factor. This could be that their basic behavioral needs are not met; this can be due to lack of turnout and thus opportunities to socialize and burn off excess energy. This leads nicely to another common question: Why don’t all horses carry out these behaviors? Just like in people, individual horses cope with different environments and events differently. This can be due to their innate, built-in makeup or their past experiences or a combination of the two. For example, other horses being turned out first will bother some individuals immensely due to their desire for social contact being greater and may be a trigger for weaving for example, whereas others patiently wait their turn without bother. Racehorses and stereotypiesIt is a fair comment that competition horses, and in particular racehorses, are statistically more likely to develop stereotypical behaviors. This can be due to a number of reasons, some of which could be altered with careful management to improve the welfare of those horses affected. In general, racehorses spend a large amount of time stabled, in busy barns with lots of movement of horses; when surveyed, horse owners noted horse movement as a key factor in the initiation of stereotypical behaviors, particularly weaving and kicking. Other factors include boredom, although racehorses are in higher workload than some other stabled horses and do inevitably stand in a stable for extended periods of time, which may contribute to boredom levels. Prevention, redirection or adaptation? Among the equine community, the question “Should we stop them?” is often raised, and there is much debate on how, why and if we should stop these behaviors. There is a vast range of devices on the market that aim to prevent horses completing stereotypical behaviors, some preventing them physically and others redirecting the behavior. Common devices include anti-weave grills, cribbing collars, topical anti-chew pastes to prevent crib biting and door-kicking prevention devices. Research suggests that instead of preventing the behavior via suppression or restraint, usually in the form of a cribbing collar or weave grill, it is most beneficial to cure the cause of the behavior rather than the symptom. By providing the horse with appropriate natural stimulation and opportunities to behave naturally, it will prevent the horse from feeling the need to complete the coping behavior in the first place. This may include housing horses in groups where possible, or at worst, allowing them to see, touch or interact with other horses when stabled. If grass turnout is not possible, turnout in small groups on surface or hard standing may help provide social interaction. Where resources are limited or significant changes to the horse’s housing or routine is not possible, simple changes can help attenuate distress to some degree like providing them with extra forage during times of potential stress, turning them out first before others who do not get so distressed, and/or providing them with something to do during times of potential daily stress (e.g., putting them on a horse walker or exercising them during this time). Horses who repeatedly display what can feel like relentless stereotypical behaviors can sometimes be told off by their handlers or people on the yard. This may act as a temporary fix and temporarily suspend them from the behavior, but in some cases this can either worsen the behavior or reinforce it because the horse gets a short fix of attention. In summaryThis article has aimed to dispel some of the myths associated with stereotypical behaviors but also appreciates some of the logistical challenges of managing horses in a stabled environment where immediate change to their routine is not possible. A key take-home message, when managing a horse displaying a stereotypical behavior: It is beneficial to explore methods to help solve and cure the behavior rather than punish or prevent the behavior. This is important in order to improve equine welfare and ultimately benefit the lives of our equine athletes!

By Georgie White

We often see the word “vice” used in the equestrian world to describe an undesirable behavior completed by a horse; these are often repetitive behaviors completed either at certain times of the day, prior to or following a particular event or activity which causes the horse stress for whatever reason. When we look to the dictionary definition of a vice, the words “immoral,” “corrupt” and “wicked” are synonymous; but these are all words used to describe premeditated or deliberate acts of wrongdoing. When we consider that these are horses we are talking about, they simply do not have the cognitive ability to do this. As humans, we tend to over complicate and anthropomorphize animal behavior, likening it to our own and thus presuming horses complete these behaviors for far more complex reasons.

Recently the term vice has been replaced with a more correct term: “stereotypical behaviors” or “stereotypies,” which encompasses any behavior deemed to deviate from normal behavior and has resulted from the horse coping with a challenge or stress. On the surface, the behaviors appear apparently functionless, but when understood as a coping mechanism rather than a premeditated misdeed, we can begin to understand what that behavior serves the horse, if only temporarily.

What is stress?

Stress is the body’s response to a potentially threatening situation and is experienced by humans and animals alike and even serves as a function to keep the animal alive. Presence of a short-term stressor such as a predator serves to kick-start the fight or flight response, which is part of the acute stress response. Stress can be divided into two subtypes: acute and chronic, which are dealt with by the body very differently. They also result in several different physiological adaptations that are notable when discussing stereotypical behavior.

Acute stress refers to a short event or episode that causes a temporary increase in heart rate, respiratory rate, salivary cortisol levels, increased blood pressure and muscle tension. In relatively healthy animals, once the stressful event has passed, these body parameters will return to a base-line normal. These short episodes are not always necessarily bad and can help a horse learn and adapt to their environment. As horse handlers, we also know we can help a horse habituate to a common stressor by regularly introducing them to it and giving them a positive experience. Over time, their stress response will become less severe, and thus they will learn to cope with it reoccurring.

Chronic stress refers to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period of time, which an individual perceives to have little to no control of—the latter part being key in horses. Stereotypical behaviors will often occur during times where horses cannot control their environment. Stabled horses are most likely to display stereotypical behaviors because they are often in a situation when they cannot immediately change their environment or remove themselves from a particular stressor. Symptoms of chronic stress include weight loss, decreased appetite, negative demeanor or aggressive tendencies.

Horses suffering from chronic stress sometimes go unnoticed because the signs are more subtle; there is no pounding heart rate, sweating, increased breathing rate or more obvious cues that handlers may associate with a typically stressed horse. The other problem is that stereotypical behaviors can go ignored or become “just something they do.”

There is a common link between horses who display stereotypical behaviors and those diagnosed with gastric ulcers as both are closely related to chronic stress. There is debate over cause and effect, whether the horse performs these behaviors in an attempt to ease the discomfort of gastric ulcers or if those performing stereotypies are chronically stressed and at higher risk of developing gastric ulcers.

Typical stereotypical behaviors

There are several common stereotypical behaviors seen in domesticated horses, and they can be divided into two simple categories: oral and locomotor.

Oral stereotypies include crib biting, wind sucking and wood chewing; there is varied opinion suggesting these behaviors may provide temporary alleviation of stomach discomfort.

Oral stereotypies include crib biting, wind sucking and wood chewing; there is varied opinion suggesting these behaviors may provide temporary alleviation of stomach discomfort.

Oral stereotypies include crib biting, wind sucking and wood chewing; there is varied opinion suggesting these behaviors may provide temporary alleviation of stomach discomfort, but this is a question for cause and effect. Locomotor stereotypies include weaving, box/fence walking and door kicking. These behaviors expend a lot of energy, especially if the horse devotes a significant amount of time to this behavior and as a result, the horse can be prone to losing or maintaining condition.

There is research to suggest that if performed for long enough, stereotypical behaviors become a habit; and act as a reward to the horse, the release of endorphins occurs which reinforces repetition. Further to this, it can also be preempted by a horse who regularly experiences the same stressor at the same time of the day, each day and will therefore begin the behavior before the stressful event occurs.

Individual horses will vary in the degree of persistence and vigor to which the behavior is performed; and this largely depends on how much of the horse’s time is devoted to the behavior and how often the trigger event occurs in the horse’s routine. Some horses with stereotypies will appear to have a generally nervous demeanor, and others are relatively even-tempered and well-adjusted animals who otherwise do not appear to be suffering adversely from their environment. Some horse owners will notice a trigger or a marker that often sets off the behavior, in this case the stereotypy is easier to manage (e.g., ensuring that the horse is turned out first or fed first to prevent weaving or door kicking). When there appears to be no causative link, solving the stereotypy may become quite difficult especially if the horse has routinely done it for some time, as this becomes an ingrained habit.

A little about anatomy

The left hemisphere controls routine, internally directed or self-motivated behaviors in relatively low stress and familiar environments; examples would include foraging and grooming other horses. On the other hand, the right hemisphere is responsible for environmental-motivated behaviors, emotional arousal and unexpected or threatening stimuli; this refers to natural behaviors that have been redirected to other objects or pastimes when the previously innate option is not available. These may include crib biting, bed foraging and wind sucking.

Screenshot 2021-02-25 at 07.52.58.png

The horse’s brain and associated physiology is quite different from the human; in part this can be attributed to the fact that horses are prey animals, and their innate fight or flight response is regularly triggered. …

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Hydrotherapy for performance - the use of water for therapeutic benefit in the equine industry - hydrotherapy as a mechanism for enhancing performance in the racehorse

Hydrotherapy for performanceGeorgina WhiteWhat is hydrotherapy?The historic use of water for therapeutic benefit in the equine industry has taken a leap in development in recent decades, from the humble use of cold hosing a swollen limb through to the development of water treadmills and water walkers for injury rehabilitation and performance development.Cold hosing and other forms of cooling localized areas of the body is more correctly termed cryotherapy—meaning, it aims to harness the benefits of reduction in temperature to treat mainly acute and edemic injuries. By reducing temperature of the local area, for example, a distal portion of a limb, several key functional changes occur. First, local blood flow is reduced. This is especially useful if an open wound is involved; the precapillary sphincters constrict and direct blood away from the area. Secondly, there is evidence that nociceptors, involved in the perception of pain and sensory receptors located at the end of peripheral nerve endings can be temporarily suppressed with local application of cryotherapy. Following a brief summary of cryotherapy, this article is going to focus on hydrotherapy as a mechanism for enhancing performance in the racehorse, focusing on the specific parameters of fitness that can be targeted and thus improved.Fundamental properties of waterThere are several fundamental principles of water that can be used as a recovery tool to facilitate optimum rehabilitation and ongoing performance improvement. When immersed in water, or made to move through water, the horse’s body, like the human, encounters a medium for which it is not designed, and locomotion is of limited efficiency. It is in fact the imposed limited efficiency that is useful in different training contexts—it forces the body to work harder than on dry ground, thus improving fitness and better preparing the horse’s body for future athletic tests. Similarly, the method of human altitude, or hypoxic training, is where the body will learn to produce the same amount of energy with a significantly lower available amount of oxygen and thus benefit at a later date in a competitive environment.First, and most important in an equine fitness protocol, is the viscosity of the water creating resistance; the resistance offered by water is greater than that experienced in locomotion on dry ground, therefore requiring greater overall effort to move through it. Exercising in water has shown to provide up to 15 times the resistance of exercising on land. This factor alone means that the trainer can achieve a far more challenging training environment without the horse experiencing the concussive forces on the limbs associated with high-end aerobic or anaerobic land based exercise, such as works on a gallops. Resistance also works indirectly at lower water levels whereby horses will choose to step over the water in a bid to avoid resistance. Therapists then utilize this to gain increased flexion at limb joints (further discussion of this throughout the article).Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on an object when immersed in water. Depth of immersion is an influential factor with greater depth correlating with greater pressure. Depending on the type of hydrotherapy system used, the benefits of hydrostatic pressure will vary. For example, greater hydrostatic pressure will be exerted when using a swimming lane with depths of up to two meters, as opposed to depths of 30-60cm of water on a treadmill. Application of hydrostatic pressure greatly benefits the recovery processes, acting in a similar way as compression bandages. The pressure reduces the formation of edema, or swelling, and improves the elimination of muscular by-products such as lactic acid and carbon dioxide.Buoyancy is not utilized in the same way as it is in humans and small animal hydrotherapy, except in the use of swimming lanes; this is partly due to the obvious size difference and limitations associated with submerging a horse almost completely in water. Buoyancy is achieved when the weight of the fluid displaced by the body is equal, also accounting for the force of gravity on the body. To remain buoyant, the two forces must counterbalance one another. Once this balance occurs, the body is essentially weightless, allowing exercise without the impact of joint load experienced in land-based exercise. These properties act together during water-based exercise to produce the increased benefits to the horse’s fitness discussed in this article.What happens during a hydrotherapy session?Horses are typically introduced to the hydrotherapy equipment to acclimate them and ensure they will be relaxed while exercising. It is important for the horse to establish a relaxed frame when working on the treadmill or in the hydrotherapy pool to prevent any stress-related or compensatory posture during the workout. As we know from land-based exercise, if a horse is stressed, they are likely to tire more quickly; so in order to utilize this workout, acclimation is beneficial.When using a treadmill, it is typical that the horse warms up on a dry treadmill prior to adding water. As with land-based exercise, a thorough warmup ensures adequate preparation of the horse’s muscles to be ready for harder work during the session.The bodily systems during exerciseDuring a hydrotherapy session, the horse’s different bodily systems will be affected in several ways. But essentially, the efficiency and smooth-running of these systems all contribute to overall performance quality, and any deficiencies will act as an overall limitation.The cardiovascular system is often considered to be the horse’s engine during locomotion, working with the respiratory system in concert to provide the horse with the oxygen needed for exercise as well as dispelling by-products. Working as a muscular pump, the heart delivers oxygen and nutrient-rich blood across the body via a network of blood vessels that develops further with long-term consistent exercise. Supplying this oxygen are the nasal structures; as obligate nasal breathers, horses must breathe through their noses. Flaring of nostrils and dilation of the horse’s larynx work to provide a greater cross-sectional area of space for oxygen uptake. When exercise begins, the previously oxygenated muscles begin to work and enter temporary oxygen debt. The cardiovascular and respiratory system combat this by working harder to produce a continual supply of oxygenated blood by increasing the number of breaths taken per minute, thus increasing oxygen intake. During hydrotherapy exercise, the respiratory system will be required to deliver elevated levels of oxygen and removal of increased quantities of carbon dioxide. This is because the horse begins to work towards the higher levels of aerobic exercise. At rest, the horse will be taking in approximately 60 liters of air per minute; when moving towards moderately strenuous exercise, this can increase to as much as 2,250 liters of air per minute.From here the heart increases in beats per minute to keep up with this demand. When still working with oxygen the exercise is considered aerobic; when the horse reaches a speed or exercise intensity where they require greater oxygen than is available, the horse will begin working anaerobically. In a hydrotherapy setting, the treadmill can be considered more the equivalent of strength and conditioning training where heart rate does not rise significantly. On the contrary, swimming increases heart rate significantly without the concussive forces of traditional gallop work. This is when the horse is unable to utilize oxidative processes quickly enough—also known as maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max). Any further energy must be generated by anaerobic glycolysis. The horse cannot sustain long periods of anaerobic exercise, but instead the horse’s aerobic capacity becomes greater and thus delays onset of the anaerobic exercise. Incidentally, horses also experience respiratory locomotor coupling in higher intensity canter and gallop work—a phenomenon that epitomizes the efficiency of the horse as a performance animal. The stride and breath are in sync at a harmonious 1:1 ratio; they must lengthen their stride to increase their speed.From a fitness point of view, the respiratory system is often considered the horse’s limiting factor where minimal conditioning takes place of the related structures. Additionally, the horse’s respiratory system is highly specialized for exercise. This means that any damage to or deficiency of the respiratory system can have significant influence on overall performance. Unlike in the human, the horse’s resting heart rate does not lower with increased fitness; therefore, opportunities to measure fitness are reduced to monitoring during exercise and in the recovery phase. Fitness testing methods may include blood-lactate tests, monitoring of respiratory and exercising heart rate, recovery rate from exercise—with the fitter the horse, the quicker the recovery rate. Like on dry treadmills, the controlled indoor nature of the hydrotherapy environment lends itself well to applying various fitness testing equipment as opposed to some of the environmental constraints often found in-field exercise environments such as out on a gallops.In contrast, to the respiratory system, the horse’s muscular system has great potential for improvement, and targeted use of hydrotherapy can be hugely beneficial. Muscles are arguably the most adaptive structures in the body; consistent and targeted exercise makes them effective energy providers and force producers. As part of muscle development, the individual muscle strands (myofibrils) increase in thickness (diameter) and muscle cell length; increase in muscle cell number is limited to the prenatal and immediate postnatal development. Therefore, muscle growth in the adolescent horse primarily concerns increased thickness of fibers. During exercise, miniscule micro-tears occur that are repaired and result in greater cross-sectional area of muscle mass over time. It is this occurrence that dictates the need for adequate rest and recovery following a period of exercise in order to allow these micro-tears to repair themselves fully.Once the horse has achieved a diet of quality protein and a positive energy balance (i.e., more energy going in than is being used), the horse can begin to build muscle. There is a direct relationship between the range of motion available at a joint and the likely surrounding muscle mass. If the horse has a greater healthy range of motion, then this promotes development of quality muscle or hypertrophy. If the opposite occurs, a horse with a restricted range of motion at a joint, either due to pathology or weakness, lesser work is done at the joint resulting in long-term atrophy of muscle. Using a treadmill in shallow water helps to facilitate this relationship by providing a stimulus to increase range of motion. The horse increases flexion at the hip and elbow joint, for example, to clear 2-3 inches of water and perhaps increases range of motion at the affected joints by 10-20 degrees; when doing this consistently during a session, the 10 degrees increase in range per stride suddenly becomes very influential on work done by muscles.Hydrotherapy as a correctional aidAs well as being used to develop muscle in the generally poorly muscled horse, hydrotherapy has been proven anecdotally to be an excellent method of correcting maladaptive or asymmetrical muscle buildup. This may have occurred following injury or from overuse of one side of the body. There are emerging clinical controlled trials looking at the benefits which are linked at the bottom of this article. Using a treadmill to work the horse in straight lines can be particularly useful where exercise on a circle is contraindicated. As mentioned above, the intricate control that the trainer has, coupled with the ability to view almost every angle of the horse during water treadmill exercise, means that the exercise can be quickly adapted to suit the horse’s capabilities. For example, if the horse is tiring significantly or beginning to compensate, the intensity can be adjusted quickly instead of the horse adopting a maladaptive gait to continue.Unless the distinct biomechanical effects are explained, one may wonder how and why in some cases the small amount of water on the treadmill is beneficial to the horse’s performance and fitness. First, we must consider the proprioceptive influence of water on the horse: Proprioception refers to the horse’s self-awareness and ability to place their limbs correctly; water provides stimulation to this additional sense. By adding just a small amount of water to the treadmill, say around coronet band height, the horse begins to increase the flexion through their limbs to “clear the water” as the air space above the water provides the path of least resistance. With increased flexion comes increased work done by the muscles, in particular the limb flexors. Working this much harder you begin to see the horse really use their body—lowering of the head, engagement of the core musculature, and hindlimbs stepping underneath their barrel. By raising the water further, you are able to increase these benefits to a point. Individual horses will differ, but they will then begin to walk “through” the water rather than stepping over it; here the trainer is then able to utilize the property of resistance further.Aside from the benefits of variation on the horse’s energetic body systems, the horse’s mental state greatly benefits from a change in surroundings. A number of studies as well as anecdotal evidence shows the benefit of variation in a training routine and avoiding mental “burnout” from repetitive training environments.Typical hydrotherapy protocolsThe use of interval training is commonly used in land-based exercise and can also be utilized in the hydrotherapy setting whereby repeated spells of hard work are interspersed with rest or less intense work, allowing the horse to recover to some degree their resting heart rate. Consistent use of this training method conditions the horse’s cardiovascular and muscular systems—over time requiring the horse to recover quicker before commencing the next spell of exercise. When using a water treadmill, spells of high-intensity exercise can either take the form of increased speed or increased water depth; and the trainer can elect to use this in varying forms to suit the trainer’s desired outcomes for the horse. Different centers will work differently, but a typical 10% water fill will reach approximately to the horse’s coronet band, eliciting a proprioceptive response and making the horse reach up and over the water. This is generally considered a height that will begin to tone muscles already present. A 30% treadmill fill will typically reach the fetlock or low cannon bone; here a similar response is seen with increased flexion through the limb joints as the horse steps higher to clear the water. With this, there is greater vertical displacement of the pelvis. Typically you will see an increased rounding of the spine and engagement of the horse’s core musculature. Next you have a 50% fill—generally water reaches the carpus height. This harnesses a different water property in that the horse now moves their limbs through the water, utilizing resistance of the water. A multifaceted, well-rounded hydrotherapy session would typically include short spells at various heights once the horse was well-established working on the treadmill.An example interval session on a water treadmill may take the form of:1-2 minutes dry treadmill warmup; speed generally measured in m/s and adjusted according to the horse’s natural walking speed.1-2 minutes at lowest water height to provide a gentle increase in stimulus and workload done by the horse’s body.Several bursts of work at various lower heights, possibly increasing and decreasing speed accordingly.At the peak or middle of the session, the highest water height for that horse may be selected for a shorter time; this may be where the horse works anaerobically for a period of time depending on fitness.Depending on fitness and desired outcomes, the horse may continue with a couple more spells of lower intensity work before performing a cool down on the dry treadmill.At this time, a trainer may choose to monitor the time taken for the horse’s vital signs to return to pre-exercise levels.A look at the different equipment on the marketMany commercial establishments now offer hydrotherapy sessions for equines with centers offering various services, including swimming pools, water walkers and treadmills. It is important for the therapist or trainer utilizing these to correctly clinically reason their use and apply correct treatment protocol in order to benefit performance and rehabilitation.If the trainer wishes to have a high degree of control over the various parameters available, then a water treadmill would be a suitable choice—with speed, water depth and incline all manageable via a set of controls. This means that bespoke interval training programs are easy to design for targeting specific aspects of each horse’s fitness. On the other hand, a swimming lane also provides a challenging workout for the horse where the trainer can still influence rest breaks between each length repetition without the need of fine tuning the controls; and horses will generally swim at their own pace.When considering if training on a circle or in straight lines is preferable, the trainer has several options. Water walkers will train the horse on a circle with the inside limb taking greater load and the outside limb is required to complete greater ground coverage. On the contrary, both swimming lanes and water treadmills will train the horse in a straight line, which is often considered beneficial in a rehabilitation setting, especially for gait correction, rehabilitation of spinal pathology and straightness training. Training on a circle does have its benefits when applied at the correct time in a rehabilitation program, but as with most training, an adopted ethos of “little and often” is practical. Using a swimming lane for horses that are weak through the back or have previous back pathology would not be ideal given the fact that horses generally swim quite hollow through their backs, keeping their noses up out of the water to breathe. This posture is counterproductive for the horse with back pathology where a rounded, engaged and lengthened spinal posture is beneficial for long-term musculoskeletal health.[insert diagram horse on inclined treadmill with hip in flexion with vertical arrow showing increased flexion required]When it comes to the utilization of buoyancy and hydrostatic pressure, the swimming lane is the most effective method, given that it provides the greatest degree of body submission under water. It will provide the greatest degree of whole-body resistance when compared to the water treadmill, where water depths may not reach above hock height.[insert two images: one of long low posture working in treadmill, one of inverted back posture, ideally skeleton]In summary, having reviewed the physiological effects of exercise in a hydrotherapy application, the use of hydrotherapy should be considered as an adjunct to a horse’s training regimen. It is not limited to use in times of injury but instead as a potentially highly influential additional training method for a trainer’s repertoire.Thanks to Dr. Jessica York for her assistance in the development of this article. Further research studies concerning hydrotherapy can be found below:Kinematics of the equine axial skeleton during aqua-treadmill exercise’ York, 2017Effect of water depth on amount of flexion and extension of joints of the distal aspects of the limbs in healthy horses walking on an underwater treadmill’ Mendez-Angulo et al., 2013Photo ideas:1) a horse on a water treadmill on an incline, ideally taking a forward step with their hindlimb to show the increased hip flexion during incline2) one image of long and low/ horse working over their back on a treadmill in a good posture3) an inverted posture/ skeleton (I will caption with info)4) horse at a stretched/ fast gallop (side view- that can possibly be annotated with the following around the image:-Arytenoir cartilages open-Trachea transports airflow-thoracic cavity loaded-forelimb reaches forward (free flight phase= inhalation)-forelimb strikes ground = exhalation5) horses on a Water Walker

By Georgie White

What is hydrotherapy?

The historic use of water for therapeutic benefit in the equine industry has taken a leap in development in recent decades, from the humble use of cold hosing a swollen limb through to the development of water treadmills and water walkers for injury rehabilitation and performance development. 

Cold hosing and other forms of cooling localized areas of the body is more correctly termed cryotherapy—meaning, it aims to harness the benefits of reduction in temperature to treat mainly acute and edemic injuries. By reducing temperature of the local area, for example, a distal portion of a limb, several key functional changes occur. First, local blood flow is reduced. This is especially useful if an open wound is involved; the precapillary sphincters constrict and direct blood away from the area. Secondly, there is evidence that nociceptors, involved in the perception of pain and sensory receptors located at the end of peripheral nerve endings can be temporarily suppressed with local application of cryotherapy. Following a brief summary of cryotherapy, this article is going to focus on hydrotherapy as a mechanism for enhancing performance in the racehorse, focusing on the specific parameters of fitness that can be targeted and thus improved. 

Fundamental properties of water

There are several fundamental principles of water that can be used as a recovery tool to facilitate optimum rehabilitation and ongoing performance improvement. When immersed in water, or made to move through water, the horse’s body, like the human, encounters a medium for which it is not designed, and locomotion is of limited efficiency. It is in fact the imposed limited efficiency that is useful in different training contexts—it forces the body to work harder than on dry ground, thus improving fitness and better preparing the horse’s body for future athletic tests. Similarly, the method of human altitude, or hypoxic training, is where the body will learn to produce the same amount of energy with a significantly lower available amount of oxygen and thus benefit at a later date in a competitive environment. 

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First, and most important in an equine fitness protocol, is the viscosity of the water creating resistance; the resistance offered by water is greater than that experienced in locomotion on dry ground, therefore requiring greater overall effort to move through it. Exercising in water has shown to provide up to 15 times the resistance of exercising on land. This factor alone means that the trainer can achieve a far more challenging training environment without the horse experiencing the concussive forces on the limbs associated with high-end aerobic or anaerobic land based exercise, such as works on a gallops. Resistance also works indirectly at lower water levels whereby horses will choose to step over the water in a bid to avoid resistance. Therapists then utilize this to gain increased flexion at limb joints (further discussion of this throughout the article). 

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Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on an object when immersed in water. Depth of immersion is an influential factor with greater depth correlating with greater pressure. Depending on the type of hydrotherapy system used, the benefits of hydrostatic pressure will vary. For example, greater hydrostatic pressure will be exerted when using a swimming lane with depths of up to two meters, as opposed to depths of 30-60cm of water on a treadmill. Application of hydrostatic pressure greatly benefits the recovery processes, acting in a similar way as compression bandages. The pressure reduces the formation of edema, or swelling, and improves the elimination of muscular by-products such as lactic acid and carbon dioxide. 

Buoyancy is not utilized in the same way as it is in humans and small animal hydrotherapy, except in the use of swimming lanes; this is partly due to the obvious size difference and limitations associated with submerging a horse almost completely in water. Buoyancy is achieved when the weight of the fluid displaced by the body is equal, also accounting for the force of gravity on the body. To remain buoyant, the two forces must counterbalance one another. Once this balance occurs, the body is essentially weightless, allowing exercise without the impact of joint load experienced in land-based exercise. These properties act together during water-based exercise to produce the increased benefits to the horse’s fitness discussed in this article. 

What happens during a hydrotherapy session?

Horses are typically introduced to the hydrotherapy equipment to acclimate them and ensure they will be relaxed while exercising. It is important for the horse to establish a relaxed frame when working on the treadmill or in the hydrotherapy pool to prevent any stress-related or compensatory posture during the workout. As we know from land-based exercise, if a horse is stressed, they are likely to tire more quickly; so in order to utilize this workout, acclimation is beneficial. 

When using a treadmill, it is typical that the horse warms up on a dry treadmill prior to adding water. As with land-based exercise, a thorough warmup ensures adequate preparation of the horse’s muscles to be ready for harder work during the session. 

The bodily systems during exercise

During a hydrotherapy session, the horse’s different bodily systems will be affected in several ways. But essentially, the efficiency and smooth-running of these systems all contribute to overall performance quality, and any deficiencies will act as an overall limitation.  

The cardiovascular system is often considered to be the horse’s engine during locomotion, working with the respiratory system in concert to provide the horse with the oxygen needed for exercise as well as dispelling by-products. Working as a muscular pump, the heart delivers oxygen and nutrient-rich blood across the body via a network of blood vessels that develops further with long-term consistent exercise. Supplying this oxygen are the nasal structures; as obligate nasal breathers, horses must breathe through their noses. Flaring of nostrils and dilation of the horse’s larynx work to provide a greater cross-sectional area of space for oxygen uptake. When exercise begins, the previously oxygenated muscles begin to work and enter temporary oxygen debt. The cardiovascular and respiratory system combat this by working harder to produce a continual supply of oxygenated blood by increasing the number of breaths taken per minute, thus increasing oxygen intake. During hydrotherapy exercise, the respiratory system will be required to deliver elevated levels of oxygen and removal of increased quantities of carbon dioxide. This is because the horse begins to work towards the higher levels of aerobic exercise. At rest, the horse will be taking in approximately 60 liters of air per minute; when moving towards moderately strenuous exercise, this can increase to as much as 2,250 liters of air per minute. 

From here the heart increases in beats per minute to keep up with this demand. …

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Handedness - can we train a completely symmetrical horse?

The dominant limb - can we train a completely symmetrical horse?Limb dominance, handedness and laterality are all terms closely associated with the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain and how these may influence preferred use of one side of the body; a direct example in humans would be the preferred hand he/she learns to write with or foot to kick a ball with. The racehorse is often commemorated on their speed or ability to clear a fence, but you would be surprised how relevant limb dominance is to the performance and longevity of a racehorse’s career. This preference is often evident in an individual horse’s preferred canter lead, preferred leading limb in gallop, leading and landing limb over a fence. It can be argued that the former activities can be influenced by training, but to what degree and at what point should we utilize this preference? And when should we pay attention to the risk of injury? This article is going to discuss this relevance and explain the potential implications of limb dominance.As with many corners of equine research, the observed phenomenon first began from studying the human and has since been studied extensively in performance and leisure horses, respectively. The goal of many a ridden horse is symmetry of movement, the discipline in which they train will dictate the degree of importance of this; the dressage horse can lose palpable marks when they are not symmetrical in their movement, whilst a racehorse may not be as well versed nor will it be a direct measure of performance quality.Anatomical structure of a horse’s brainThe primary motor cortex is the central hub of dynamic movement, generating nerve impulses that control the execution of all movements and crossing the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles. Every part of the body is represented and arranged somatotopically, meaning the area controlling the hoof is close to the area controlling the limb. The amount of brain matter or cortical space devoted to a body part represents the degree of control the horse has over that body part. For example, the human will have far greater cortical space devoted to intricate movements of the hands and fingers compared to the horse. In contrast the horse will have far greater cortical space reserved for movement of the ears, lips and nose to represent the vast number of social cues, foraging behaviors and body language exhibited. Although not yet proven in horses, human athletes have been shown to have increased cortical thickness in areas correlating with athletic ability or skill; this is likely to be the case in equines; for example, racehorses would likely see increases in areas devoted to limb control.From a lateralization perspective, the brain is divided into two hemispheres or lobes which are referred to the left and right hemispheres and divided by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is an essential structure composed of a thick band of nerve fibers providing communication between the two spheres. Lateralization refers to these hemispheres having distinct functional differences, each offering specialized neural functions or cognitive processes. Lateralization occurs contralaterally, meaning that a horse who is left hemisphere dominant will experience a right-sided motor preference and vice versa.What research is there on limb dominance?In horses, grazing patterns are often studied, specifically noting which limb is placed forward most often; however, research is varied with some conclusions stating that innate skeletal asymmetry is highly prevalent in the foal and can be exacerbated by environmental factors. It is recommended that a farrier and vet work closely to correct visual asymmetry in goals as early as possible. A valuable longitudinal study completed by Van Heel et al., (2010) found a relationship with uneven forefeet in foals and subsequent unevenness as a yearling and then as a three-year-old; this was then found to correlate with sidedness in trot and canter transitions. This study highlights several points of interest, firstly the distinct need to correct limb asymmetries and abnormalities from an early age and secondly the potential future inclusion of quantitative laterality data at the time of studbook admission to assist breeders and owners in selection criteria.Later research by Austin and Rogers (2012) stated there was no significant differences in limb dominance in a group of feral and wild Przewalski’s horses, which suggested that differences can be attributed to domestication at least to some degree. This varying body of evidence opens the discussion on the effect of domestication and relevance of cultural husbandry practices; in the western world it is common practice to complete many routine tasks from the left side of the horse, e.g., leading, tacking up and mounting. Future studies that attempt to measure this cultural influence may choose to select a large group of equines of generally the same breed and discipline to act as a control and prevent skewed results.Many studies have attempted to decipher the causes of variation in motor bias. This is yet to have solid evidence behind it, with several studies showing links in gender and breed initially with training likely to play a part as they embark on their ridden career. As with all equine research, it is important to take note of cause and effect; for example, it may not be the fact that the horse is of Thoroughbred breeding, but the likely type of work or environment that a Thoroughbred is placed in that has supplied the correlation.The gallopAs many a rider and trainer will describe, a horse will naturally have a leading limb preference and over a fence, they are generally left to continue with their preference; on the flat, generally left to the jockey’s discretion but the consensus seems to be less interference the better. Then comes the bends. In the transverse gallop, the horse will have a four-beat gait—a pattern of right hind, left hind, right fore, left fore—with the left fore essentially leading the movement and acting as the leading limb round a left hand bend. In the words of Dr. Ray Baran, the correct lead is “the easiest method to get the shortest distance between two points the quickest way”; as a result the horse is in balance.Clockwise or counterclockwise?Laterality research in the racing Thoroughbred has paid special attention to racetrack direction. This is specifically relevant given that in Europe, racetracks are both clockwise and counterclockwise, some with greater curves and in some cases horses race for one mile in a straight line. Meanwhile, in North America, where all tracks are counterclockwise, largely oval and flat, there is greater potential for laterality and limb dominance to be magnified due to horses racing consistently in the same direction. In addition, from a performance point of view, it is unlikely horses will be trained in the opposite direction to counteract any developmental preferences.Anecdotal evidence suggests there is an emerging understanding of the implications of asymmetry in the horse, with more trainers beginning to pay special attention to ensuring horses are as symmetrical as possible during their training.Simple alterations to training regimes include:Training horses in both clockwise and counterclockwise directionWorking horses centrally rather than allowing them to develop a dependence and “lean” on one rail.Adding variety to fitness routines which may include use of an aqua treadmill, providing cardiovascular training without repetitive or concussive force through limbs.Adding gymnastic jump exercises or gridwork, again providing athletic benefit whilst not repeating the same dynamic patterns of movement.Does a horse’s standing posture correlate with their dynamic performance?Static posture and conformation are not always indicative of how a horse will then move dynamically, and vice versa, some limb deviations will only be present in stance as will deviations in the flight path of a limb only be visible in motion. Further to this, some will only be present in certain gaits.Research released in the last eight months from Holleboom (2020) at Massey University, New Zealand conducted a small study looking at load distribution in the forelimbs of horses either clockwise or counterclockwise. Although no significant differences between left and right limbs were found, this is only indicative of static weight bearing and during dynamic exercise. This may well change when other external variables are also in place such as racing environment, rider aids and other horses present amongst others.Several researchers conducting thesis studies have also looked at facial hair whorl direction as a measure of laterality and found it to be indicative of greater forelimb weight load distribution. Research by White (2018) found that a horse with a clockwise whorl direction preferred to load the right forelimb more; comparatively, the left forelimb was favored in horses with counterclockwise whorls. Interestingly, the study also found links between forelimb loading preference and cannon bone circumferences when measured externally. Gohery (2017) found correlative links between whorl direction and desirable stride characteristics in canter. Horses with clockwise whorls had a longer stride in the left stride pattern, and horses with counterclockwise whorls had a longer stride in the right stride pattern. Initially the two studies appear to contradict themselves, but we must remember the canter is a three-beat asymmetrical gait initiated by the opposite hind leg from the leading forelimb. Therefore, this study corroborated the work of White and other previous researchers.Dynamic exercise is of particular relevance given that the force exerted through the leading forelimb at gallop has been shown to be as much as twice the horse’s body weight; and this may be relevant when considering the potential implications for a horse that is significantly preferred of one limb.So, what does this mean for the horses that I train?The prevalence of repetitive strain injuries and stress fractures in the sports horse, and in particular racehorses, has been widely documented for the last 40 years—occurring most commonly in the third metacarpal, third metatarsal, humerus, tibia, and proximal phalanx. These locations have been proven to be anatomically and biomechanically susceptible to excess wear and tear, rendering them at risk of stress fracture. But what has not been identified is the relationship between these sites of fracture and if the fractured limb were indeed the horse’s dominant or preferred limb. Emergence of this research would better inform us how to improve training practices to prevent such fractures.The use of ground reaction force measurements and force vector diagrams have been shown to identify inter-limb asymmetries in preliminary studies by Hobbs et al., (2018) which shows a reliable method of being able to further conduct these studies in the future. If paired with the work of Holleboom, this may begin to provide the equestrian industry with some answers on this topic and therefore better inform best training practice.And what about rider influence?Of course, we must also consider the influence of the rider who themselves will no doubt have their own dominant limb which may influence the aids given to the horse and which over time may increase the effects of laterality or potentially even it out. Currently scientific evidence would be hard to come by in-field due to the difficulty in separating rider laterality and horse laterality, but it is certainly a topic for development in the future.In summaryHaving discussed the available and emerging research and its potential implications we are left with a causality dilemma or informally known as the “chicken or egg” situation, where we have scientific evidence of the existence of laterality in horses but currently lack data that solidifies cause and the potential implications. Until we have this solid evidence, we can begin to work with existing and anecdotal evidence and current best practice to train our horses to be as symmetrical as possible to minimize risk of the detrimental effects of extreme lateralization. The appreciation and relevance of limb dominance may seem like a small cog in a large wheel of the performing racehorse, but when the aggregation of marginal improvements to performance is at the forefront, can we really afford to ignore its potential significance?

By Georgie White


The dominant limb - can we train a completely symmetrical horse?

Limb dominance, handedness and laterality are all terms closely associated with the functions of the left and right hemispheres of the brain and how these may influence preferred use of one side of the body; a direct example in humans would be the preferred hand he/she learns to write with or foot to kick a ball with. The racehorse is often commemorated on their speed or ability to clear a fence, but you would be surprised how relevant limb dominance is to the performance and longevity of a racehorse’s career. This preference is often evident in an individual horse’s preferred canter lead, preferred leading limb in gallop, leading and landing limb over a fence. It can be argued that the former activities can be influenced by training, but to what degree and at what point should we utilize this preference? And when should we pay attention to the risk of injury? This article is going to discuss this relevance and explain the potential implications of limb dominance.

As with many corners of equine research, the observed phenomenon first began from studying the human and has since been studied extensively in performance and leisure horses, respectively. The goal of many a ridden horse is symmetry of movement, the discipline in which they train will dictate the degree of importance of this; the dressage horse can lose palpable marks when they are not symmetrical in their movement, whilst a racehorse may not be as well versed nor will it be a direct measure of performance quality. 

Anatomical structure of a horse’s brain

shutterstock_1507412945 (2).jpg

The primary motor cortex is the central hub of dynamic movement, generating nerve impulses that control the execution of all movements and crossing the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles. Every part of the body is represented and arranged somatotopically, meaning the area controlling the hoof is close to the area controlling the limb. The amount of brain matter or cortical space devoted to a body part represents the degree of control the horse has over that body part. For example, the human will have far greater cortical space devoted to intricate movements of the hands and fingers compared to the horse. In contrast the horse will have far greater cortical space reserved for movement of the ears, lips and nose to represent the vast number of social cues, foraging behaviors and body language exhibited. Although not yet proven in horses, human athletes have been shown to have increased cortical thickness in areas correlating with athletic ability or skill; this is likely to be the case in equines; for example, racehorses would likely see increases in areas devoted to limb control. 

From a lateralization perspective, the brain is divided into two hemispheres or lobes which are referred to the left and right hemispheres and divided by the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is an essential structure composed of a thick band of nerve fibers providing communication between the two spheres. Lateralization refers to these hemispheres having distinct functional differences, each offering specialized neural functions or cognitive processes. Lateralization occurs contralaterally, meaning that a horse who is left hemisphere dominant will experience a right-sided motor preference and vice versa. 

What research is there on limb dominance? 

In horses, grazing patterns are often studied, specifically noting which limb is placed forward most often; however, research is varied with some conclusions stating that innate skeletal asymmetry is highly prevalent in the foal and can be exacerbated by environmental factors. It is recommended that a farrier and vet work closely to correct visual asymmetry in goals as early as possible. A valuable longitudinal study completed by Van Heel et al., (2010) found a relationship with uneven forefeet in foals and subsequent unevenness as a yearling and then as a three-year-old; this was then found to correlate with sidedness in trot and canter transitions. This study highlights several points of interest, firstly the distinct need to correct limb asymmetries and abnormalities from an early age and secondly the potential future inclusion of quantitative laterality data at the time of studbook admission to assist breeders and owners in selection criteria. 

Later research by Austin and Rogers (2012) stated there was no significant differences in limb dominance in a group of feral and wild Przewalski’s horses, which suggested that differences can be attributed to domestication at least to some degree. This varying body of evidence opens the discussion on the effect of domestication and relevance of cultural husbandry practices; in the western world it is common practice to complete many routine tasks from the left side of the horse, e.g., leading, tacking up and mounting. Future studies that attempt to measure this cultural influence may choose to select a large group of equines of generally the same breed and discipline to act as a control and prevent skewed results. 

Many studies have attempted to decipher the causes of variation in motor bias. This is yet to have solid evidence behind it, with several studies showing links in gender and breed initially with training likely to play a part as they embark on their ridden career. As with all equine research, it is important to take note of cause and effect; for example, it may not be the fact that the horse is of Thoroughbred breeding, but the likely type of work or environment that a Thoroughbred is placed in that has supplied the correlation. 

The gallop

_ a 011 Social Paranoia _ Poker Belmont 20200704-.JULY 04, 2020 _ Social Paranoia with Jose Ortiz aboard, wins the Grade 3 Poker Stakes, going 1 mile on the turf, at Belmont Park, Elmont, NY.jpg

As many a rider and trainer will describe, a horse will naturally have a leading limb preference and over a fence, they are generally left to continue with their preference; on the flat, generally left to the jockey’s discretion but the consensus seems to be less interference the better. Then comes the bends. In the transverse gallop, the horse will have a four-beat gait—a pattern of right hind, left hind, right fore, left fore—with the left fore essentially leading the movement and acting as the leading limb round a left hand bend. In the words of Dr. Ray Baran, the correct lead is “the easiest method to get the shortest distance between two points the quickest way”; as a result the horse is in balance. 

Clockwise or counterclockwise? 

Laterality research in the racing Thoroughbred has paid special attention to racetrack direction. …

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